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May 2003 massmind newsletter

SX arithmetic routines

Introduction

This application note presents programming techniques for performing commonly found arithmetic operations, such as multi-byte binary addition and subtraction, multi-digit BCD addition and subtraction, multiplication and division.

How the program works

1.0 Binary addition and subtraction

The default configuration of SX is to ignore the carry flag in additions and subtractions even the results of those operations do affect that flag. For multi-byte arithmetic operations, it is often desirable to the result of lower bytes to propagate to higher bytes by the means of the carry flag.

To enable the effect of the carry flag, carryx must be included in the list of device directives which are specified before the instructions, to make the carry flag an input to add, sub instruction.

The carry flag should be set to zero first before any addition

The SX SUB instruction will set the carry flag to zero if there is an underflow. Therefore, it is necessary for us to set it to one before any subtraction is performed.

The following program segment illustrates 32 bit binary addition. The 4 byte operand1 and the 4 byte operand2 are added together. The result is put back into operand2.

Note that operand1 is located at locations 8,9,a,b, hence 10xx binary and operand2 is at locations c,d,e,f or 11xx binary. Therefore toggling bit 2 of the FSR register effectively enable us to switch back and forth among the two operands. With that in mind, the indirect addressing of SX help us a lot in saving code by just using IND as the register pointed to by FSR.

This routine assumes that the two operands are adjacent to one another and operand1 starts at the 08 location. To relocate the operands to other locations, make sure that they are still adjacent to one another, thus occupying a contiguous 8 bytes, and that operand1 is aligned to x0 or x8. The only change needed in the code will be the ending condition. Note that in the example, we tested bit 4 which will be toggled after the inc fsr instruction if fsr was $f, and therefore pointing to the last byte. To make the routine work with operands located in $10-$17, for example, would need the ending condition be changed from sb fsr.4 to sb fsr.3 since the inc fsr instruction will change the address of last byte from $17 to $18 (%00011000) and set bit 3. Using this technique, we can save the need to store the count separately in order to keep track of the number of bytes added.

	;32 bit addition
	;entry = 32 bit operand1 and 32 bit operand2 in binary form
	;exit = operand2 become operand1+operand2, carry flag=1 for overflow from MSB
add32 
	clc 		; clear carry, prepare for addition
	mov fsr,#operand1 ; points to operand 1 first
add_more
	clrb fsr.2 	; toggle back to operand 1
	mov w,ind 	; get contents into the work register
	setb fsr.2 	; points to operand 2
	add ind,w 	; operand2=operand2+operand1
	inc fsr 	; next byte
	sb fsr.4 	; done? (fsr=$10?)
	jmp add_more 	; not yet
	ret 		; done, return to calling routine

The 32 bit subtraction routine is very similar to addition, except that we set the carry flag first to indicate no underflow. Note that the result is in operand2 and it is operand2-operand1, not the other way around. When the carry flag is 0 on return, it means that the result is negative and is therefore in 2’s complement form.

	;32 bit subtraction
	;entry = 32 bit operand1 and 32 bit operand2 in binary form
	;exit = operand2 become operand2-operand1, carry flag=0 for underflow from MSB
sub32 
	stc 		; set carry, prepare for subtraction
	mov fsr,#operand1 ; points to operand 1 first
sub_more 
	clrb fsr.2 	; toggle back to operand 1
	mov w,ind 	; get contents into the work register
	setb fsr.2 	; points to operand 2
	sub ind,w 	; operand2=operand2-operand1
	inc fsr 	; next byte
	sb fsr.4 	; done? (fsr=$10?)
	jmp sub_more 	; not yet
	ret 		; done, return to calling routine

2.0 BCD addition and subtraction

The next topic will be BCD addition. In a lot of application where calculation result needs to be displayed, BCD or binary coded decimal can be much more easily converted into visual form, as in the case of adding machine or calculator.

The algorithm here for BCD addition is very similar to binary addition except for 1 important difference: decimal adjustment or correction. The need for such operation will be evident as we examine the follow simple addition:

85+15 = 9A

Obviously the correction result should be 100 in BCD. We can see that by adding 6 to the least significant digit (LSD), in this case, $9A+6=$A0, will correct the LSD. Finally, by adding a $60 to the whole number (equal to adding 6 to the most significant digit, MSD), the entire number is corrected to $00 with a carry of 1, which can be propagated into the next byte.

By looking at another example: 19+19=32. After the addition, the digit carry will be set to one, indicating an overflow in the LSD. The result then can be corrected by adding 6 to the LSD, giving us the correct answer of 38.

In general, we will do a correction on LSD of the result if the digit carry is set or the LSD is greater than 9. The same is true for the MSD. It will be corrected, i.e., added with 6, when the carry bit is set or the MSD is greater than 9.

The tricky part now is how to check if the digit is greater than 9. A straight implementation will require masking 1 nibble off at a time and do a subtraction. This will require additional storage if we do not want the operands (and the result) to be changed. The way it is implemented here is a bitwise comparison.

Let us look at a 4 bit number, if bit number 3 is 0, the number must be then %0xxx, and therefore ranges from 0-7, hence less than 9. If that’s not the case, then we go on to check bit 2. If it is a one, then we have %11xx, and the number is definitely bigger than 9, since the minimum is already %1100 or 12. If bit 2 is a zero, we proceed to check bit 1. If this bit is a zero, then we have %100x, which means the number is either 8 or 9, and no correction is needed. But if bit 1 is an one, then we have %101x, which is higer than 9 and correction will be needed.

This method of detecting whether the digit is greater than 9 or not, is used twice in the code. Once for LSD and once for MSD. The changes is only the bit number that is being checked on.

One more point worth noting is the carry bit. After the initial binary addition, we have to store the carry bit that is used to propagate the result to higher bytes. The reason for doing this is simple: the decimal correction process of adding 6 to the number will clear the carry bit.

Notice also that the ending condition has been changed to sb fsr.2 instead of sb fsr.4. This is simply because the code happens to point at operand 1 at that time and it just saves us code to check if fsr is pointing to the last byte of operand 1 at location $0b (%1011) or not. The fsr will be $0c (%1100) after the increment operation and therefore setting bit 2.

	;8 BCD digit addition
	;entry = 8 BCD digit operand1 and 8 BCD digit operand2 in BCD form
	;exit = operand2 become operand2+operand1, carry flag=1 for overflow from MSB
	; operand1 will be DESTROYED

badd32 
	clc 			; clear carry, prepare for addition
	mov fsr,#operand1 	; points to operand 1 first
badd_more
	mov w,ind 		; get contents into the working register
	clr ind
	setb fsr.2 		; points to operand 2
	add ind,w 		; operand2=operand2+operand1
	clrb fsr.2
	rl ind 			; store carry bit which will be altered by decimal
				; adjustment (adding 6)
	setb fsr.2 		; points back to operand 2
	snb status.1 		; digit carry set? if so, need decimal correction
	jmp dcor
	jnb ind.3,ck_overflow 	; if 0xxx, check MSD
	jb ind.2,dcor 		; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
	jnb ind.1,ck_overflow 	; 100x, number is 8 or 9, no decimal correction

	; here if 101x, decimal adjust
	dcor clc 		; clear effect of previous carry
	add ind,#6 		; decimal correction by adding 6

	; finish dealing with least significant digit, proceed to MSD
ck_overflow 
	clrb fsr.2 		; points to operand1
	jb ind.0,dcor_msd 	; stored carry=1, decimal correct

	; test if MSD > 9
	setb fsr.2 		; points back to operand2
	jnb ind.7,next_badd 	; if 0xxx, it's <9, add next byte
	jb ind.6,dcor_msd 	; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
	jnb ind.5,next_badd 	; if 100x, it's <9
	
	;here if 101x, decimal adjust
dcor_msd 
	clc 			; clear effect of carry
	setb fsr.2 		; make sure that it's pointing at the result
	add ind,#$60 		; decimal correct
next_badd 
	clrb fsr.2 		; points to stored carry
	snb ind.0 		; skip if not set
	stc 			; restore stored carry
	inc fsr 		; next byte
	sb fsr.2 		; done? (fsr=$0c?)
	jmp badd_more 		; not yet
	ret 			; done, return to calling routine

BCD subtraction is very similar to addition except for a few notes, which are summarized below:

  1. carry flag is set first before subtraction which means no borrow;
  2. decimal correction is done when:
    1. digit carry is 0;
    2. least significant digit (LSD) is greater than 9;
    3. carry is 0;
    4. most significant digit (MSD) is greater than 9;
  3. when the result is negative, it is not suitable for display, e.g., on 7 segment LEDs. Therefore, an operation which negates the number is performed by 0-result. This will enable us to obtain the magnitude of the number. The no carry condition will keep us reminded of the fact that it is a negative number. This situation is also occurring in a binary subtraction, whereas a no carry condition means the result is in 2’s complement form. This is fine since the 2’s complement is not used for display and it is useful for further computation.
	;8 BCD digit subtraction
	;entry = 8 BCD digit operand1 and 8 BCD digit operand2 in BCD form
	;exit = operand2 become operand2-operand1, carry flag=0 for underflow from MSB
	; carry flag=1 for positive result
	; operand1 will be DESTROYED
bsub32 
	call bs32 		; do subtraction
	snc 			; no carry=underflow?
	jmp bs_done 		; carry=1 positive, done
	call neg_result		; yes, get the magnitude, 0-result
	call bs32 		; keep in mind that this result is a negative
				; number (carry=0)
bs_done 
	ret
bs32 
	stc 			; set carry, prepare for subtraction
	mov fsr,#operand1 	; points to operand 1 first
	bsub_more
	mov w,ind 		; get contents into the working register
	clr ind
	setb ind.7 		; set to 1 so that carry=1 after rl instruction
	setb fsr.2 		; points to operand 2
	sub ind,w 		; operand2=operand2+operand1
	clrb fsr.2
	rl ind 			; store carry bit which will be altered by decimal
				; adjustment (adding 6)
	setb fsr.2 		; points back to operand 2
	sb status.1 		; digit carry set? if so, need decimal correction
	jmp dec_cor
	jnb ind.3,ck_underflow 	; if 0xxx, check MSD
	jb ind.2,dec_cor	; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
	jnb ind.1,ck_underflow 	; 100x, number is 8 or 9, no decimal correction
				; here if 101x, decimal adjust
	dec_corstc 		; clear effect of previous carry
	sub ind,#6 		; decimal correction by subtracting 6
	; finish dealing with least significant digit, proceed to MSD
ck_underflow 
	clrb fsr.2 		; points to operand1
	jnb ind.0,dadj_msd 	; stored carry=0, decimal adjust
				; test if MSD > 9
	setb fsr.2 	; points back to operand2
	jnb ind.7,next_bsub 	; if 0xxx, it's <9, add next byte
	jb ind.6,dadj_msd 	; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
	jnb ind.5,next_bsub 	; if 100x, it's <9
				;here if 101x, decimal adjust
	dadj_msd stc 		; clear effect of carry
	setb fsr.2 		; make sure that it's pointing at the result
	sub ind,#$60 		; decimal correct
next_bsub 
	clrb fsr.2 		; points to stored carry
	sb ind.0 		; skip if not set
	clc 			; restore stored carry
	inc fsr 		; next byte
	sb fsr.2 		; done? (fsr=$0c?)
	jmp bsub_more 		; not yet
	ret 			; done, return to calling routine

	; move the result to operand1 and change operand2 to 0
	; the intention is prepare for 0-result or getting the magnitude of a
	; negative BCD number which is in complement form
neg_result 
	mov fsr,#operand2 	; points to
mov_more 			; operand2
	setb fsr.2 	
	mov w,ind 		; temp. storage
	clr ind 		; clear operand2
	clrb fsr.2 		; points to operand1
	mov ind,w 		; store result
	inc fsr 		; next byte
	sb fsr.2 		; done?
	jmp mov_more 		; no
	ret 			; yes, finish

3.0 Binary to BCD conversion

In a lot of situations, we will find BCD representations very difficult to deal with, especially when anything more than addition and subtraction is needed, due to the need for decimal correction. This problem is alleviated by representing the numbers internally as binary to facilitate computation and convert it to BCD for display or printing purposes. In this section, we will discuss how that is implemented.

There are many different algorithms for binary to BCD conversions. We will only consider one of the easiest to implement, that is, shifting the binary number to the left and let the most significant bit be shifted into a BCD result. The result is then continuously decimally corrected to give a right answer.

In the following code segment, we have implemented a 32 bit binary number to 10 digit BCD conversion routine. With the RL instruction of the SX, the shift operation of both numbers together is a breeze.

Decimal correction is done here differently than before. Instead of checking the carry and digit carry, we check the BCD value before a shift and adjust it properly. This will save us both code and time. This was not possible before in our addition and subtraction routines since we were not doing shift operations.

To see how this is done, let’s look at some examples:

Current
value
binary Shifted value
in binary
Shifted value
in hex
What the shifted
value should be
in BCD
0 0000 0000 0 0
1 0001 0010 2 2
2 0010 0100 4 4
3 0011 0110 6 6
4 0100 1000 8 8
5 0101 1010 A 10
6 0110 1100 C 12
7 0111 1110 E 14
8 1000 1 0000 10 16
9 1001 1 0010 12 18

From the table, we can see that whenever the current value is 4 or less, then it is okay. For all digits of 5 and above, decimal correction is needed. This can be done by adding 6 to the shifted value or by adding 3 to the current value. If we add 3 to all current values and check if they are greater than 7, all number satisfying this condition will need decimal correction and we will just keep that added number, otherwise we fall back to the original number.

This decimal correction process applies also to the most significant digit, except we use $30 instead of 3.

	; 32 bit binary to BCD conversion
	; entry: 32 bit binary number in $10-13
	; exit: 10 digit BCD number in $14-18
	; algorithm= shift the bits of binary number into the BCD number and
	; decimal correct on the way
bindec 
	mov count,#32
	mov fsr,#bcd_number 	; points to the BCD result
clr_bcd 
	clr ind 		; clear BCD number
	snb fsr.3 		; reached $18?
	jmp shift_both 		; yes, begin algorithm
	inc fsr 		; no, continue on next byte
	jmp clr_bcd 		; loop to clear
shift_both 
	mov fsr,#bin_number 	; points to the binary number input
	clc 			; clear carry, prepare for shifting
shift_loop 
	rl ind 			; shift the number left
	snb fsr.3 		; reached $18? (finish shifting both
				; numbers)
	jmp check_adj 		; yes, check if end of everything
	inc fsr 		; no, next byte
	jmp shift_loop 		; not yet
check_adj 
	decsz count 		; end of 32 bit operation?
	jmp bcd_adj 		; no, do bcd adj
	ret
bcd_adj 
	mov fsr,#bcd_number 	; points to first byte of the BCD result
bcd_adj_loop 
	call digit_adj 		; decimal adjust
	snb fsr.3 		; reached last byte?
	jmp shift_both 		; yes, go to shift both number left again
	inc fsr 		; no, next byte
	jmp bcd_adj_loop 	; looping for decimal adjust
digit_adj 			; consider LSD first
	mov w,#3 		; 3 will become 6 on next shift
	add w,ind 		; which is the decimal correct factor to be added
	mov temp,w
	snb temp.3 		; > 7? if bit 3 not set, then must be <=7, no adj.
	mov ind,w 		; yes, decimal adjust needed, so store it
				; now for the MSD
	mov w,#$30 		; 3 for MSD is $30
	add w,ind 		; add for testing
	mov temp,w
	snb temp.7 		; > 7?
	mov ind,w 		; yes, store it
	ret

4.0 BCD to binary conversion

Input from keyboards can be easily rendered into BCD form. To let the CPU process the number effectively, however, binary representation is more desirable.

In this section we will discuss how the BCD to binary conversion process is implemented. It is basically a reversal of the binary to BCD conversion process: we shift the BCD number to the right and let the least significant bit be shifted into a binary result. The original BCD number is then continuously decimally corrected to maintain the BCD format.

In the following code segment, we have implemented a 10 digit BCD number to 32 bit binary number conversion routine. With the RR instruction of the SX, the shift operation of both numbers together can be very efficiently implemented.

Decimal correction is done again differently here since we are shifting right instead of shifting left.

To derive the algorithm, let’s look at the following table:

Current
value
binary Shifted value
in binary
Shifted value
in hex
What the shifted
value should be
in BCD
0 0000 0000 0 0
2 0010 0001 1 1
4 0100 0010 2 2
6 0110 0011 3 3
8 1000 0100 4 4
10 10000 1000 8 5
12 10010 1001 9 6
14 10100 1010 A 7
16 10110 1011 B 8
18 11000 1100 C 9

As we can see, whenever the shifted value has a 1 on bit 3, the result should be subtracted with 3 to make it correct. And this is the algorithm that we have adopted in the following code: shift right both numbers and decimally adjust the BCD number along the way. Note that for the most significant digit in each BCD number, we subtract $30 instead of 3 to account for its position.

	; 10 digit BCD to 32 bit binary conversion
	; entry: 10 digit BCD number in $14-18
	; exit: 32 bit binary number in $10-13
	; algorithm= shift the bits of BCD number into the binary number and decimal
	; correct on the way
decbin 
	mov count,#32 		; 32 bit number
	mov fsr,#bin_number 	; points to the binary result
clr_bin 
	clr ind 		; clear binary number
	inc fsr 		; no, continue on next byte
	snb fsr.2 		; reached $13? (then fsr will be $14 here)
	jmp shift_b 		; yes, begin algorithm
	jmp clr_bin 		; loop to clear
shift_b 
	mov fsr,#bcd_number+4 	; points to the last BCD number
	clc 			; clear carry, prepare for shifting right
shft_loop 
	rr ind 			; shift the number right
	dec fsr 		; reached $10? (finish shifting both numbers)
	sb fsr.4 		; then fsr will be $0f
	jmp chk_adj 		; yes, check if end of everything
	jmp shft_loop 		; not yet
chk_adj 
	decsz count 		; end of 32 bit operation?
	jmp bd_adj 		; no, do bcd adj
	ret
bd_adj 
	mov fsr,#bcd_number 	; points to first byte of the BCD result
bd_adj_loop 
	call dgt_adj 		; decimal adjust
	snb fsr.3 		; reached last byte?
	jmp shift_b 		; yes, go to shift both number right again
	inc fsr 		; no, next byte
	jmp bd_adj_loop 	; looping for decimal adjust

	; prepare for next shift right
	; 0000 --> 00000 -->0
	; 0010 --> 0001 2 -->1
	; 0100 --> 0010 4 -->2
	; 0110 --> 0011 6 -->3
	; 1000 --> 0100 8 -->4
	; 1 0000 --> 1000 10-->8 !! it should be 5, so -3
	; 1 0010 --> 1001 12-->9 !! it should be 6, so -3
	; in general when the highest bit in a nibble is 1, it should be subtracted with 3
dgt_adj ; consider LSD first
	sb ind.3 		; check highest bit in LSD, =1?
	jmp ck_msd 		; no, check MSD
	stc 			; prepare for subtraction, no borrow
	sub ind,#3 		; yes, adjust

	
ck_msd 	; now for the MSD
	sb ind.7 		; highest bit in MSD, =1?
	ret 			; no

	; yes, do correction
	stc 			; no borrow
	sub ind,#$30 		; this is a 2 word instruction, and cannot be skipped
	ret

5.0 Multiplication

The need for multiplication permeates through the use of microcontrollers. Here we will consider both 8 bit by 8 bit and 16 bit by 16 bit multiplications. As we can see, the basic algorithms are all the same regardless of the number of bits involved.

Let’s first discuss how the multiplier, multiplicand, and the result are generally organized.

Multiplicand
Upper product Multiplier (lower product)

The lower part of the result are initially occupied by the multiplier and the upper part is cleared to zero.

To summarize, the following steps are needed to do a multiplication by software:

  1. Initialize multiplier, multiplicand from calling program;
  2. clear the upper product to zero;
  3. shift right the whole product to the right;
  4. if carry is 1, i.e., the lsb of the multiplier is one, then add the multiplicand to the upper product;
  5. repeat step 3 and 4 until all bits of the multiplier has been shifted out

This algorithm is amazingly elegant as we can see in the next program segment.

As implemented for 8 bit by 8 bit multiplication, this routine requires only 2 bytes of RAM provided the multiplicand is pre-loaded into the W, working register.

	; 8 bit x 8 bit multiplication (RAM efficient, 2 bytes only)
	; entry: multiplicand in W, multiplier at 09
	; exit : product at $0a,09
					; cycles
mul88 
	mov upper_prdt,w 		; 1 	store W
	mov count,#9 			; 2 	set number of times to shift
	mov w,upper_prdt 		; 1 	restore W (multiplicand)
	clr upper_prdt 			; 1 	clear upper product
	clc 				; 1 	clear carry
					; the following are executed [count] times

m88loop 
	rr upper_prdt 			; 1 	rotate right the whole product
	rr multiplier 			; 1 	check lsb
	snc 				; 1 	skip addition if no carry
	add upper_prdt,w 		; 1 	add multiplicand to upper product
no_add 
	decsz count 			; 1/2 	loop 9 times to get proper product
	jmp m88loop 			; 3 	jmp to rotate the next half of product
	ret 				; 3 	done...
		; one time instructions = 1+2+1+1+1+3= 9 cycles
		; repetitive ones= (1+1+1+1+1+3)9-3+2=71
		; total worst case cycles=80 cycles

A faster implementation can be obtained if we unroll the loop and repeat the code using a macro:

	; fast 8 bit x 8 bit multiplication (RAM efficient, 2 bytes only)
	; entry: multiplicand in W, multiplier at 09
	; exit : product at $0a,09
	; macro to rotate product right and add

rra 	MACRO
	rr upper_prdt 		; 1 	rotate right the whole product
	rr multiplier 		; 1 	check lsb
	snc 			; 1 	skip addition if no carry
	add upper_prdt,w 	; 1 	add multiplicand to upper product
	ENDM
				; cycles
fmul88 
	clr upper_prdt 		; 1 	clear upper product
	clc 			; 1 	clear carry
				; the following are executed [count] times
	rra 			; call the macro 9 times
	rra
	rra
	rra
	rra
	rra
	rra
	rra
	rra
	ret 			; 3 	done...
		; one time instructions = 1+1+3= 5 cycles
		; repetitive ones= (1+1+1+1)9=36
		; total worst case cycles=41 cycles

We have saved almost half of the time by using macros and eliminating the loop control. Notice that in both algorithms, 9 shifts are needed to obtain a correct result. The last shift is used to align the result properly.

The same algorithm has been implemented for 16 bit by 16 bit multiplication, which is included as follows:

	; 16 bit x 16 bit multiplication
	; entry: multiplicand in $09,08, multiplier at $0b,$0a
	; exit : 32 bit product at $0d,$0c,$b,$a
				; cycles
mul1616
	mov count,#17 		; 2 	set number of times to shift
	clr upper_prdt 		; 1 	clear upper product
	clr upper_prdt+1 	; 1 	higher byte of the 16 bit upeper product
	clc 			; 1 	clear carry

	; the following are executed [count] times
m1616loop 
	rr upper_prdt+1 	; 1 	rotate right the whole product
	rr upper_prdt 		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
	rr mr16+1 		; 1 	high byte of the multiplier
	rr mr16 		; 1 	check lsb
	sc 			; 1 	skip addition if no carry
	jmp no_add 		; 3 	no addition since lsb=0
	clc 			; 1 	clear carry
	add upper_prdt,md16 	; 1 	add multiplicand to upper product
	add upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1 	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add 
	decsz count 		; 1/2 	loop [count] times to get proper product
	jmp m1616loop 		; 3 	jmp to rotate the next half of product
	ret 			; 3 	done...
		; one time instructions = 8 cycles
		; repetitive ones= 15*16+11+2=253
		; total worst case cycles=261 cycles

Note that the only difference is the number of bits that we shift, and more bytes to add and rotate. Other than that, it is basically the same as a 8 x 8 multiplication. A fast version is also available but it is too lengthy to list here. Please see the program file for details. A saving of 26% is achieved here by unrolling the loop and reduced the cycles to 193.

6.0 Division

Finally, we are going to tackle the most difficult arithmetic problem: that of divison. If the reader can recall how he or she was taught how to do division by long hand, then we are very close to understanding the algorithm.

In division by long hand, we examine the dividend digit by digit, and see if it is bigger than the divisor. If it is, then we subtract the divisor or the multiples of it from the dividend and write down that multiple as a digit in our quotient. This process is repeated until all digits of the dividend are exhausted.

This exact process is being implemented in the following code segment with one difference with our long hand division: we are dealing with binary numbers here. So we modify the algorithm as follows:

  1. initialize the result and remainder register;
  2. shift the dividend bit by bit into the remainder register (use as a placeholder here);
  3. do a trial subtraction of the partial dividend in the remainder register and the divisor;
  4. if the partial dividend is bigger than the divisor, then we subtract the divisor from it and record a 1 bit for the quotient
  5. shift the quotient to left so that we can calculate the next bit, and repeat step 2 thru 4 till all bits of the dividend is exhausted.
	; 16 bit by 16 bit division (b/a)
	; entry: 16 bit b, 16 bit a
	; exit : result in b, remainder in remainder
			; cycles
div1616 
	mov count,#16 	; 2 	no. of time to shift
	mov d,b 	; 2 	move b to make space
	mov d+1,b+1 	; 2 	for result
	clr b 		; 1 	clear the result fields
	clr b+1 	; 1 	one more byte
	clr rlo 	; 1 	clear remainder low byte
	clr rhi 	; 1 	clear remainder high byte
			; subtotal=10
divloop 
	clc 		; 1 	clear carry before shift
	rl d 		; 1 	check the dividend
	rl d+1 		; 1 	bit by bit
	rl rlo 		; 1 	put it in the remainder for
	rl rhi 		; 1 	trial subtraction
			; subtotal=5
	stc 		; 1 	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
	mov w,a+1 	; 1 	do trial subtraction
	mov w,rhi-w 	; 1 	from MSB first
	sz 		; 1/2 	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
	jmp chk_carry 	; 3 	not equal, check which one is bigger
			;
	; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no
	; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
	mov w,a 	; 1 	equal MSB, check LSB
	mov w,rlo-w 	; 1 	which one is bigger?
			; subtotal=7
chk_carry 
	sc 		; 1/2 	partial dividend >a?
	jmp shft_quot 	; 3 	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient
	; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction
	; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
	sub rlo,a 	; 2 	store part. dividend-a into a
	sub rhi,a+1 	; 2 	2 bytes
	stc 		; 1 	shift a 1 into quotient
			; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot 
	rl b 		; 1 	store into result
	rl b+1 		; 1 	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
	decsz count 	; 1/2
	jmp divloop 	; 3
			; subtotal=6, 4 on last count
	ret 		; 3
		; one time instructions=13
		; repetitive ones=(19+6)*15+19+4=398
		; total=411

The fast version of this division algorithm is implemented by unrolling the loop and repeat all the instructions inside it. It consumes 336 cycles and therefore saves 18% of time.

7.0 Conclusions

The SX instructions, namely, ADD (add), ADDB (add bit), SUB (subtract), SUBB (subtract bit), CLC (clear carry), STC (set carry), RL (rotate left 1 bit), RR (rotate right 1 bit), are very useful in implementing arithmetic routines. With careful planning and smart algorithm design, all normal arithmetic functions can be accomplished.

Modifications and further options

There exists a lot of literature on computer arithmetic and the implementations included in this application note is not the only way of doing it. It only serves as an example for the readers and help them to bring their product to the market faster by using existing routines.

To test the example programs, remember to set the equate options mentioned in the first sentence of the program listing properly (for example, to use BCD routines, set bcd_test equ 1 and reset all other options to 0). This will enable you to include only the code you need in a program.

Test Code

; to test different modules, set the corresponding test to 1 and reset all others to 0

addsub_test	equ	0
bcd_test	equ	0
mul88_test	equ	0
mul1616_test	equ	0
div1616_test	equ	1
;		mathpak for SX
;
IF mul88_test=1
		device	pins28,pages4,banks8,turbo,oschs,optionx,stackx
ELSE
		device	pins28,pages4,banks8,turbo,oschs,optionx,carryx,stackx
ENDIF

		; use oschs only for debugging
		; frequency does not matter much here except when incorporating these routines
		; into a real program


		;32 bit addition
		org 	8
IF addsub_test=1 OR bcd_test=1
		;8,9,a,b=1000,1001,1010,1011=10xx
operand1	ds	4
		;c,d,e,f=1100,1101,1110,1111=11xx
operand2	ds	4
bin_number	ds	4
bcd_number	ds	5
count		equ	operand1	; share storage in other routines
temp		equ	operand1+1	; share 1 more

ENDIF
IF mul88_test=1
		; for 8 bit x 8 bit multiplication
count		ds	1
multiplier	ds	1
upper_prdt	ds	1
ENDIF

IF mul1616_test=1
		; for 16 bit x 16 bit multiplication
md16		ds	2
mr16		ds	2
upper_prdt	ds	2
count		ds	1
ENDIF

IF div1616_test=1
		; for 16 bit / 16 bit division
a		ds	2
b		ds	2
rlo		ds	1
rhi		ds	1
d		ds	2
count		ds	1
ENDIF

load32		MACRO	8		; macro used to load the operands
		mov	operand1,#\1
		mov	operand1+1,#\2
		mov	operand1+2,#\3
		mov	operand1+3,#\4
		mov	operand2,#\5
		mov	operand2+1,#\6
		mov	operand2+2,#\7
		mov	operand2+3,#\8
		ENDM

		reset	start			; goto 'start' on reset

		org	0
start		;test procedures

IF addsub_test=1
		; $7fffffff+$01ffffff
		load32 $ff,$ff,$ff,$01,$ff,$ff,$ff,$7f
		call	add32			;result=$81fffffe

		; $8ffffffe-$01ffffff
		call	sub32			;result=$7fffffff, carry=1-> result is positive

		; $01ffffff-$7fffffff
		load32 $ff,$ff,$ff,$7f,$ff,$ff,$ff,$01
		call	sub32			;result=$82000000, carry=0-> result is negative and in
						;2's complement form, =-$7e000000

ENDIF
IF bcd_test=1
		load32 $78,$56,$89,$67,$78,$56,$89,$67
		call	badd32			;result=35791356 carry=1 (overflow)

		load32 $12,$34,$56,$78,$78,$56,$34,$21
		call	badd32			;result=99909090 

		; 87654321-90123456= -2469135 
		load32 $56,$34,$12,$90,$21,$43,$65,$87
		call	bsub32			; result= 2469135, no carry means result is negative

		; 90123456-87654321
		load32 $21,$43,$65,$87,$56,$34,$12,$90
		call	bsub32			;result=02469135 carry=1 (no borrow), result is positive


		mov	bin_number,#$ff		; largest 32 bit number
		mov	bin_number+1,#$ff	; $ffffffff
		mov	bin_number+2,#$ff	; let's see how big the number will be
		mov	bin_number+3,#$ff	; in decimal
		call	bindec			; result = 4,294,967,295
		call	decbin			; result = $ffffffff
ENDIF
IF mul88_test=1
		mov	multiplier,#$ff		; largest number
		mov	W,#$ff			; largest 8 bit no. as multiplicand
		call	mul88			; result=$fe01

		; test fast 8 x 8 multiplication
		mov	multiplier,#$ff		; largest number
		mov	W,#$ff			; largest 8 bit no. as multiplicand
		call	fmul88			; result=$fe01
ENDIF

IF mul1616_test=1
		mov	md16,#$ff		; largest 16 bit number
		mov	md16+1,#$ff
		mov	mr16,#$ff		; multiplied with largest 16 bit number
		mov	mr16+1,#$ff
		call	mul1616			; result = fffe0001
	
		mov	md16,#$ff		; largest 16 bit number
		mov	md16+1,#$01
		mov	mr16,#$ff		; multiplied with largest 16 bit number
		mov	mr16+1,#$7f
		call	mul1616			; result = 00ff7e01

		mov	md16,#$ff		; largest 16 bit number
		mov	md16+1,#$ff
		mov	mr16,#$ff		; multiplied with largest 16 bit number
		mov	mr16+1,#$ff
		call	fmul1616		; result = fffe0001
	
		mov	md16,#$ff		; largest 16 bit number
		mov	md16+1,#$01
		mov	mr16,#$ff		; multiplied with largest 16 bit number
		mov	mr16+1,#$7f
		call	fmul1616		; result = 00ff7e01



		
ENDIF

IF div1616_test=1
		mov	a+1,#$01
		mov	a,#$ff			; 01ff
		mov	b+1,#$7f		
		mov	b,#$ff			; 7fff
		call	div1616			; 7fff/01ff=$40 remainder $3f
	
		mov	a+1,#$00
		mov	a,#$ff			; 00ff
		mov	b+1,#$ff		
		mov	b,#$ff			; ffff
		call	div1616			; ffff/00ff=$101 remainder 0

		mov	a+1,#$01
		mov	a,#$ff			; 01ff
		mov	b+1,#$7f		
		mov	b,#$ff			; 7fff
		call	fdiv1616		; 7fff/01ff=$40 remainder $3f
	
		mov	a+1,#$00
		mov	a,#$ff			; 00ff
		mov	b+1,#$ff		
		mov	b,#$ff			; ffff
		call	fdiv1616		; ffff/00ff=$101 remainder 0

ENDIF


loop		jmp	loop
IF addsub_test=1
		;32 bit addition
		;entry = 32 bit operand1 and 32 bit operand2 in binary form
		;exit  = operand2 become operand2+operand1, carry flag=1 for overflow from MSB
add32		clc				; clear carry, prepare for addition
		mov	fsr,#operand1		; points to operand 1 first
add_more	clrb	fsr.2			; toggle back to operand 1
		mov	w,ind			; get contents into the work register
		setb	fsr.2			; points to operand 2
		add	ind,w			; operand2=operand2+operand1
		inc	fsr			; next byte
		sb	fsr.4			; done? (fsr=$10?)
		jmp	add_more		; not yet
		ret				; done, return to calling routine

		;32 bit subtraction
		;entry = 32 bit operand1 and 32 bit operand2 in binary form
		;exit  = operand2 become operand2-operand1, carry flag=0 for underflow from MSB
sub32		stc				; set carry, prepare for subtraction
		mov	fsr,#operand1		; points to operand 1 first
sub_more	clrb	fsr.2			; toggle back to operand 1
		mov	w,ind			; get contents into the work register
		setb	fsr.2			; points to operand 2
		sub	ind,w			; operand2=operand2-operand1
		inc	fsr			; next byte
		sb	fsr.4			; done? (fsr=$10?)
		jmp	sub_more		; not yet
		ret				; done, return to calling routine
ENDIF
IF bcd_test=1
		;8 BCD digit addition
		;entry = 8 BCD digit operand1 and 8 BCD digit operand2 in BCD form
		;exit  = operand2 become operand2+operand1, carry flag=1 for overflow from MSB
		;	 operand1 will be DESTROYED
badd32		clc				; clear carry, prepare for addition
		mov	fsr,#operand1		; points to operand 1 first
badd_more
		mov	w,ind			; get contents into the working register
		clr	ind
		setb	fsr.2			; points to operand 2
		add	ind,w			; operand2=operand2+operand1
		clrb	fsr.2
		rl	ind			; store carry bit which will be altered by decimal
						; adjustment (adding 6)
		setb	fsr.2			; points back to operand 2
		snb	status.1		; digit carry set? if so, need decimal correction
		jmp	dcor
		
		jnb	ind.3,ck_overflow	; if 0xxx, check MSD
		jb	ind.2,dcor		; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
		jnb	ind.1,ck_overflow	; 100x, number is 8 or 9, no decimal correction

		; here if 101x, decimal adjust	
dcor		clc				; clear effect of previous carry
		add	ind,#6			; decimal correction by adding 6
	
		; finish dealing with least significant digit, proceed to MSD
ck_overflow 	clrb	fsr.2			; points to operand1
		jb	ind.0,dcor_msd		; stored carry=1, decimal correct
		; test if MSD > 9
		setb	fsr.2			; points back to operand2
		jnb	ind.7,next_badd		; if 0xxx, it's <9, add next byte
		jb	ind.6,dcor_msd		; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
		jnb	ind.5,next_badd		; if 100x, it's <9
		
		;here if 101x, decimal adjust
dcor_msd	clc				; clear effect of carry
		setb	fsr.2			; make sure that it's pointing at the result
		add	ind,#$60		; decimal correct


next_badd	clrb	fsr.2			; points to stored carry
		snb	ind.0			; skip if not set
		stc				; restore stored carry
		inc	fsr			; next byte
		sb	fsr.2			; done? (fsr=$0c?)
		jmp	badd_more		; not yet
		ret				; done, return to calling routine

		;8 BCD digit subtraction
		;entry = 8 BCD digit operand1 and 8 BCD digit operand2 in BCD form
		;exit  = operand2 become operand2-operand1, carry flag=0 for underflow from MSB
		;					    carry flag=1 for positive result
		;	 operand1 will be DESTROYED
bsub32		call 	bs32			; do subtraction
		snc				; no carry=underflow?
		jmp	bs_done			; carry=1 positive, done
		call 	neg_result		; yes, get the magnitude, 0-result
		call	bs32			; keep in mind that this result is a negative number (carry=0)
bs_done		ret

bs32		stc				; set carry, prepare for subtraction
		mov	fsr,#operand1		; points to operand 1 first
bsub_more
		mov	w,ind			; get contents into the working register
		clr	ind
		setb	ind.7			; set to 1 so that carry=1 after rl instruction
		setb	fsr.2			; points to operand 2
		sub	ind,w			; operand2=operand2+operand1
		clrb	fsr.2
		rl	ind			; store carry bit which will be altered by decimal
						; adjustment (adding 6)
		setb	fsr.2			; points back to operand 2
		sb	status.1		; digit carry set? if so, need decimal correction
		jmp	dec_cor
	
		jnb	ind.3,ck_underflow	; if 0xxx, check MSD
		jb	ind.2,dec_cor		; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
		jnb	ind.1,ck_underflow	; 100x, number is 8 or 9, no decimal correction

		; here if 101x, decimal adjust	
dec_cor		stc				; clear effect of previous carry
		sub	ind,#6			; decimal correction by subtracting 6
	
		; finish dealing with least significant digit, proceed to MSD
ck_underflow 	clrb	fsr.2			; points to operand1
		jnb	ind.0,dadj_msd		; stored carry=0, decimal adjust
		; test if MSD > 9
		setb	fsr.2			; points back to operand2
		jnb	ind.7,next_bsub		; if 0xxx, it's <9, add next byte
		jb	ind.6,dadj_msd		; if 11xx, it's >9, thus need correction
		jnb	ind.5,next_bsub		; if 100x, it's <9
		
		;here if 101x, decimal adjust
dadj_msd	stc				; clear effect of carry
		setb	fsr.2			; make sure that it's pointing at the result
		sub	ind,#$60		; decimal correct


next_bsub	clrb	fsr.2			; points to stored carry
		sb	ind.0			; skip if not set
		clc				; restore stored carry
		inc	fsr			; next byte
		sb	fsr.2			; done? (fsr=$0c?)
		jmp	bsub_more		; not yet
		ret				; done, return to calling routine


		; move the result to operand1 and change operand2 to 0
		; the intention is prepare for 0-result or getting the magnitude of a 
		; negative BCD number which is in complement form
neg_result	mov	fsr,#operand2		; points to
mov_more	setb	fsr.2			; operand2
		mov	w,ind			; temp. storage
		clr	ind			; clear operand2
		clrb	fsr.2			; points to operand1
		mov	ind,w			; store result
		inc	fsr			; next byte
		sb	fsr.2			; done?
		jmp	mov_more		; no
		ret				; yes, finish


		; 32 bit binary to BCD conversion
		; entry: 32 bit binary number in $10-13
		; exit: 10 digit BCD number in $14-18
		; algorithm= shift the bits of binary number into the BCD number and decimal
		; 	     correct on the way
bindec		mov	count,#32
		mov	fsr,#bcd_number		; points to the BCD result
		
clr_bcd		clr	ind			; clear BCD number
		snb	fsr.3			; reached $18?
		jmp	shift_both		; yes, begin algorithm
		inc	fsr			; no, continue on next byte
		jmp	clr_bcd			; loop to clear
		
shift_both	mov	fsr,#bin_number		; points to the binary number input
		clc				; clear carry, prepare for shifting
		
shift_loop	rl 	ind			; shift the number left
		snb	fsr.3			; reached $18? (finish shifting both numbers)
		jmp	check_adj		; yes, check if end of everything
		inc	fsr			; no, next byte
		jmp	shift_loop		; not yet

check_adj	decsz	count			; end of 32 bit operation?
		jmp	bcd_adj			; no, do bcd adj
		ret

bcd_adj		mov	fsr,#bcd_number		; points to first byte of the BCD result

bcd_adj_loop	call	digit_adj		; decimal adjust
		snb	fsr.3			; reached last byte?
		jmp	shift_both		; yes, go to shift both number left again
		inc	fsr			; no, next byte
		jmp	bcd_adj_loop		; looping for decimal adjust

		; prepare for next shift    
		; 0000  --> 0000	0 -->0
		; 0001	--> 0010	1 -->2
		; 0010 	--> 0100	2 -->4
		; 0011	--> 0110	3 -->6
		; 0100	--> 1000	4 -->8
		; 0101	--> 1010	5 -->A, correct result is 10, so need to add 3
		;			so that 5+3=8, and 1000 will be shifted to be 1 0000
		; the same is true for 6-9
digit_adj	; consider LSD first
		mov	w,#3			; 3 will become 6 on next shift
		add	w,ind			; which is the decimal correct factor to be added
		mov	temp,w
		snb	temp.3			; > 7? if bit 3 not set, then must be <=7, no adj.
		mov	ind,w			; yes, decimal adjust needed, so store it
		
		; now for the MSD
		mov	w,#$30			; 3 for MSD is $30
		add	w,ind			; add for testing
		mov	temp,w
		snb	temp.7			; > 7?
		mov	ind,w			; yes, store it
		
		ret

		; 10 digit BCD to 32 bit binary conversion
		; entry: 10 digit BCD number in $14-18
		; exit: 32 bit binary number in $10-13
		; algorithm= shift the bits of BCD number into the binary number and decimal
		; 	     correct on the way
decbin		mov	count,#32		; 32 bit number
		mov	fsr,#bin_number		; points to the binary result
		
clr_bin		clr	ind			; clear binary number
		inc	fsr			; no, continue on next byte
		snb	fsr.2			; reached $13? (then fsr will be $14 here)
		jmp	shift_b			; yes, begin algorithm
		jmp	clr_bin			; loop to clear
		
shift_b		mov	fsr,#bcd_number+4	; points to the last BCD number 
		clc				; clear carry, prepare for shifting right
		
shft_loop	rr 	ind			; shift the number right
		dec	fsr			; reached $10? (finish shifting both numbers)
		sb	fsr.4			; then fsr will be $0f
		jmp	chk_adj			; yes, check if end of everything
		jmp	shft_loop		; not yet

chk_adj		decsz	count			; end of 32 bit operation?
		jmp	bd_adj			; no, do bcd adj
		ret

bd_adj		mov	fsr,#bcd_number		; points to first byte of the BCD result

bd_adj_loop	call	dgt_adj			; decimal adjust
		snb	fsr.3			; reached last byte?
		jmp	shift_b			; yes, go to shift both number right again
		inc	fsr			; no, next byte
		jmp	bd_adj_loop		; looping for decimal adjust

		; prepare for next shift right   
		; 0000  --> 0000	0 -->0
		; 0010	--> 0001	2 -->1
		; 0100 	--> 0010	4 -->2
		; 0110	--> 0011	6 -->3
		; 1000	--> 0100	8 -->4
		; 1 0000 --> 1000	10-->8 !! it should be 5, so -3
		; 1 0010 --> 1001	12-->9 !! it should be 6, so -3
		; in general when the highest bit in a nibble is 1, it should be subtracted with 3
dgt_adj		; consider LSD first
		sb	ind.3			; check highest bit in LSD, =1?
		jmp	ck_msd			; no, check MSD
		stc				; prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		sub	ind,#3			; yes, adjust
			
		; now for the MSD
ck_msd		sb	ind.7			; highest bit in MSD, =1?
		ret				; no

		; yes, do correction
		stc				; no borrow
		sub	ind,#$30		; this is  a 2 word instruction, and cannot be skipped
		ret
ENDIF
IF mul88_test=1
		; 8 bit x 8 bit multiplication (RAM efficient, 2 bytes only)
		; entry: multiplicand in W, multiplier at 09
		; exit : product at $0a,09
						; cycles
mul88		mov	upper_prdt,w		; 1 	store W
		mov	count,#9		; 2	set number of times to shift
		mov	w,upper_prdt		; 1 	restore W (multiplicand)		
		clr	upper_prdt		; 1	clear upper product
		clc				; 1	clear carry
						; the following are executed [count] times
m88loop		rr	upper_prdt		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	multiplier		; 1	check lsb
		snc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		add	upper_prdt,w		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
no_add		decsz	count			; 1/2	loop 9 times to get proper product
		jmp	m88loop			; 3	jmp to rotate the next half of product

		ret				; 3	done...
						; one time instructions = 1+2+1+1+1+3= 9 cycles
						; repetitive ones	= (1+1+1+1+1+3)9-3+2=71
						; total worst case cycles=80 cycles

		; fast 8 bit x 8 bit multiplication (RAM efficient, 2 bytes only)
		; entry: multiplicand in W, multiplier at 09
		; exit : product at $0a,09

		; macro to rotate product right and add
rra		MACRO
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	multiplier		; 1	check lsb
		snc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		add	upper_prdt,w		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		ENDM
						; cycles
fmul88		clr	upper_prdt		; 1	clear upper product
		clc				; 1	clear carry
						; the following are executed [count] times
		rra				; call the macro 9 times
		rra
		rra
		rra
		rra
		rra
		rra
		rra
		rra

		ret				; 3	done...
						; one time instructions = 1+1+3= 5 cycles
						; repetitive ones	= (1+1+1+1)9=36
						; total worst case cycles=41 cycles
ENDIF
IF mul1616_test=1
		; 16 bit x 16 bit multiplication 
		; entry: multiplicand in $09,08, multiplier at $0b,$0a
		; exit : 32 bit product at $0d,$0c,$b,$a
						; cycles
mul1616	
		mov	count,#17		; 2	set number of times to shift
		clr	upper_prdt		; 1	clear upper product
		clr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	higher byte of the 16 bit upeper product
		clc				; 1	clear carry
						; the following are executed [count] times
m1616loop	rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add		decsz	count			; 1/2	loop [count] times to get proper product
		jmp	m1616loop		; 3	jmp to rotate the next half of product

		ret				; 3	done...
						; one time instructions = 8 cycles
						; repetitive ones	= 15*16+11+2=253
						; total worst case cycles=261 cycles

		; fast 16 bit x 16 bit multiplication 
		; entry: multiplicand in $09,08, multiplier at $0b,$0a
		; exit : 32 bit product at $0d,$0c,$b,$a
						; cycles
						; one time instructions = 6
						; repetitive ones = 11*17=187
						; total = 193 cycles
fmul1616	
		clr	upper_prdt		; 1	clear upper product
		clr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	higher byte of the 16 bit upeper product
		clc				; 1	clear carry
					
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add1			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add1		
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add2			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add2				
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add3			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add3
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add4			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add4
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add5			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add5
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add6			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add6
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add7			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add7
					
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add8			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add8
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add9			; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add9					
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add10		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add10
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add11		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add11
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add12		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add12
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add13		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add13
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add14		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add14
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add15		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add15
					
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add16		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add16
		rr	upper_prdt+1		; 1	rotate right the whole product
		rr	upper_prdt		; 1 	lower byte of the 16 bit upper product
		rr	mr16+1			; 1	high byte of the multiplier
		rr	mr16			; 1	check lsb
		sc				; 1	skip addition if no carry
		jmp	no_add17		; 3     no addition since lsb=0
		clc				; 1	clear carry
		add	upper_prdt,md16		; 1	add multiplicand to upper product
		add	upper_prdt+1,md16+1	; 1	add the next 16 bit of multiplicand
no_add17
		ret				; 3	done...
					
ENDIF
IF div1616_test=1
		; 16 bit by 16 bit division (b/a)
		; entry: 16 bit b, 16 bit a
		; exit : result in b, remainder in remainder
						; cycles
div1616		mov	count,#16 		; 2	no. of time to shift
		mov	d,b			; 2	move b to make space
		mov	d+1,b+1			; 2	for result
		clr	b			; 1	clear the result fields
		clr 	b+1			; 1	one more byte
		clr	rlo			; 1	clear remainder low byte
		clr	rhi			; 1	clear remainder high byte
						; subtotal=10
divloop		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
		decsz	count			; 1/2
		jmp	divloop			; 3
						; subtotal=6, 4 on last count
		ret				; 3
						; one time instructions=13
						; repetitive ones=(19+6)*15+19+4=398
						; total=411

		; fast 16 bit by 16 bit division (b/a)
		; entry: 16 bit b, 16 bit a
		; exit : result in b, remainder in remainder
						; cycles=347
						; one time=11
						; repetitive=21*16=336
fdiv1616
		mov	d,b			; 2	move b to make space
		mov	d+1,b+1			; 2	for result
		clr	b			; 1	clear the result fields
		clr 	b+1			; 1	one more byte
		clr	rlo			; 1	clear remainder low byte
		clr	rhi			; 1	clear remainder high byte
						; subtotal=8
		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry1		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry1	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot1		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot1	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
		
		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry2		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry2	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot2		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot2	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
		
		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry3		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry3	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot3		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot3	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
	
		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry4		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry4	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot4		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot4	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
	
		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry5		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry5	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot5		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot5	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry6		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry6	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot6		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot6	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry7		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry7	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot7		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot7	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry8		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry8	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot8		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot8	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry9		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry9	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot9		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot9	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry10		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry10	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot10		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot10	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry11		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry11	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot11		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot11	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry12		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry12	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot12		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot12	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry13		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry13	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot13		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot13	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry14		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry14	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot14		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot14	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry15		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry15	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot15		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot15	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates

		clc				; 1	clear carry before shift	
		rl	d			; 1	check the dividend
		rl	d+1			; 1	bit by bit
		rl	rlo			; 1	put it in the remainder for 
		rl	rhi			; 1	trial subtraction
						; subtotal=5
		stc				; 1	prepare for subtraction, no borrow
		mov	w,a+1			; 1	do trial subtraction
		mov	w,rhi-w			; 1	from MSB first
		sz				; 1/2	if two MSB equal, need to check LSB
		jmp	chk_carry16		; 3	not equal, check which one is bigger
						; 
		; if we are here, then z=1, so c must be 1 too, since there is no 
		; underflow, so we save a stc instruction
		
		mov	w,a			; 1	equal MSB, check LSB
		mov	w,rlo-w			; 1	which one is bigger?
						; subtotal=7
chk_carry16	sc				; 1/2	partial dividend >a?
		jmp	shft_quot16		; 3	no, partial dividend < a, set a 0 into quotient

		; if we are here, then c must be 1, again, we save another stc instruction

						; yes, part. dividend > a, subtract a from it
		sub	rlo,a			; 2	store part. dividend-a into a
		sub	rhi,a+1			; 2	2 bytes
		stc				; 1	shift a 1 into quotient
						; subtotal=7 worst case
shft_quot16	rl	b			; 1	store into result
		rl	b+1			; 1	16 bit result, thus 2 rotates
	
					
		ret				; 3
					
		
ENDIF		

file: /Techref/new/letter/news0305.htm, 74KB, , updated: 2004/1/14 15:51, local time: 2024/3/28 06:26,
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